- Title: Principles of Instruction
- Authors: Barak Rosenshine
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Paper summary
This research paper presents ten research-based principles of effective instruction. These principles are derived from three distinct sources: cognitive science, which examines how the brain acquires and uses information; research on master teachers, who have proven success in improving student achievement; and research on cognitive supports, which explores strategies for helping students learn complex tasks. These three sources, while different, are complementary and support the same fundamental ideas for effective instruction.
What are the key implications for teachers in the classroom?
- Begin each lesson with a short review of material covered previously. This can strengthen prior learning and lead to more fluent recall. The review can help students solidify connections between learned concepts and improve recall of vocabulary, concepts, and procedures. Daily review helps students achieve expertise through repeated practice. This practice of daily review was a key part of a successful experiment in mathematics at the elementary school level. Teachers should review concepts and skills needed for homework, have students correct each other’s work, and address areas where students struggled or made errors. It is important to review material that will be used in subsequent learning, such as math facts, sight words, grammar, and chemical equations.
- Present new material in small steps with student practice after each step. Students’ working memory has a limited capacity. Therefore, effective teachers present small amounts of new information, allowing students time to practice and master each step before moving on. This approach avoids overwhelming students’ working memory. The source notes that this method takes time, and more effective teachers dedicate more time to presenting material and guiding student practice.
- Ask a large number of questions and check the responses of all students. Questions provide practice and help students connect new material to prior learning. Teachers should ask questions about both the facts and the processes used to arrive at answers. Effective teachers use various strategies to involve all students in answering questions, such as having students discuss answers with a neighbor, write summaries, use response cards, or raise hands to indicate agreement or disagreement. Choral responses can also be effective for practicing vocabulary or lists, but it is crucial that all students start together to ensure everyone participates.
- Provide models. Students benefit from models and worked examples, which can help them learn to solve problems more efficiently. Teachers can model thinking aloud while demonstrating problem-solving, and provide worked examples that break down problems step-by-step. This reduces cognitive load on working memory, allowing students to focus on the specific steps involved. This approach has been successfully used in subjects like math, science, writing, and reading comprehension.
- Guide student practice. Effective teachers dedicate more time to guiding students’ practice of new material. Rehearsing, rephrasing, elaborating, and summarizing new information helps students retain it in long-term memory. Teachers can facilitate this rehearsal process by asking questions, having students summarize main points, and supervising practice. The quality of learning suffers when students only skim material and do not engage with it.
- Check for student understanding. Regular checks help ensure that students are learning the material with fewer errors and can alert teachers to any misconceptions. Effective teachers use various methods to check understanding, such as asking questions, having students summarize or repeat information, or asking for agreement/disagreement with classmates’ answers. This process promotes elaboration and strengthens connections in long-term memory. It also helps identify areas where reteaching may be necessary.
- Obtain a high success rate. Aiming for a success rate of around 80% during instruction and practice activities indicates that students are learning the material while being challenged. Achieving a high success rate can be accomplished by teaching in small steps, providing sufficient practice, and frequently checking for understanding. High success rates during guided practice also contribute to higher success rates in independent practice.
- Provide scaffolds for difficult tasks. Scaffolds, or temporary supports, help students learn challenging tasks. These supports can be gradually withdrawn as students gain competence. Scaffolding techniques include modeling, thinking aloud by the teacher, providing tools like checklists or cue cards, and offering models of completed work for comparison. One example of scaffolding is providing prompts to help students ask questions while reading.
- Require and monitor independent practice. Extensive, successful, independent practice is crucial for students to develop automaticity in skills and knowledge. This overlearning allows for automatic recall without burdening working memory, freeing up cognitive resources for comprehension and application. Effective teachers provide ample opportunities for independent practice, ensuring that it aligns with the content and skills covered during guided practice.
- Engage students in weekly and monthly review. Regular review is essential for students to develop a well-connected and readily accessible body of knowledge. Extensive reading, frequent review, discussions, and application activities help students expand their knowledge base and organize information into meaningful patterns. Reviewing and testing material also helps solidify learning and prevents forgetting.
These ten principles offer a research-based framework for effective instruction and provide teachers with practical strategies for improving student learning outcomes.
Quote
The most effective teachers ensured that students efficiently acquired, rehearsed, and connected knowledge. Many went on to hands-on activities, but always after, not before, the basic material was learned.
