- Title: Too High? Teacher Expectations and their (Curvi)linear Associations with Students’ School Engagement, Academic Achievement, and School Performance Pressure
- Authors: Lisette Hornstra, Astrid M.G. Poorthuis, Iris Boer & Jonne Bloem
- Access the original paper here
- Watch a video overview:
Paper summary
This Dutch study asked whether teachers’ expectations of their pupils can ever be too high. At the start of the school year, 45 teachers predicted how 716 upper primary pupils would do in their next reading and maths tests. The researchers compared each prediction with the pupil’s most recent test result, then tracked engagement, achievement and pressure from schoolwork to the end of the year. Teachers tended to overestimate, especially for boys and pupils whose parents had more education. Overestimated pupils made more progress in reading and maths, and those overestimated in maths became more engaged. For pressure, the picture changed. Pupils who were underestimated or overestimated in reading felt more pressure than those judged accurately, and underestimation looked the more harmful of the two.
If teachers remember one thing from this study, it should be…
High expectations went hand in hand with more learning, with no sign of a ceiling. Misjudging pupils in either direction was linked to more pressure from schoolwork, and pupils whose teachers expected too little felt it most. Aim high, and keep checking your expectations against what each pupil can do.
*** PAPER DEEP DIVE ***
What are the key technical terms used in the paper?
- Teacher expectations: a teacher’s prediction of how well a pupil will do.
- Over/underestimation: predicting above or below a pupil’s latest test result.
- School performance pressure: how much pressure pupils feel from schoolwork.
- Curvilinear relationship: a U-shaped pattern, where both extremes lead to one outcome.
What are the characteristics of the participants in the study?
716 pupils in Grades 4 and 5 (average age 9.7; 46.5% girls) across 45 classes in schools throughout the Netherlands, plus their 45 teachers. Around a quarter (26.1%) had a minority ethnic background. Pupils were followed through the 2023–24 school year. The design was correlational.
What does this paper add to the current field of research?
Since the Pygmalion studies of the 1960s, research has linked higher teacher expectations to better learning, almost always assuming that higher is better. This study tests whether expectations can be too high, and is the first to link teachers’ misjudgements to the pressure pupils feel about schoolwork.
What are the key implications for teachers in the classroom?
- Pupils whose teachers overestimated them made more progress, so high expectations still look like the right starting point. Compared with classmates who started from a similar level, overestimated pupils grew more in reading and maths, and those overestimated in maths became more engaged. The researchers found no point at which expectations became too high for learning. Earlier research suggests high expectations show up in everyday behaviour, such as harder work, more feedback and more chances to answer. When you plan a new unit, check whether every pupil, including those who struggled last year, is getting their share of the challenging tasks and the questions that make them think.
- Pupils whose teachers expected too little reported the most pressure. You might assume pressure comes from expectations that are too high. In this study, very low expectations looked even more damaging for pressure than very high ones, and lower-attaining pupils felt more pressure overall. The authors suggest that low expectations may tell pupils, without anyone saying it, that they are unlikely to succeed. Make a point of seeking out the pupils you have quietly written off. Give them a task you believe they can complete with effort, and tell them directly that you expect them to manage it.
- Teachers’ gut feelings were often wrong, so test them against the data. Teachers made their predictions from memory, without looking at test records. Their predictions matched pupils’ most recent results for only about 43% of pupils in reading and 50% in maths. At the start of the year, jot down the level you expect each pupil to reach, then compare your list with their last test results. Look hardest at the pupils where the two disagree, talk them through with a colleague, and repeat the exercise as the year goes on, since the authors recommend adjusting expectations as you see pupils’ actual progress.
- Stretching targets for the whole class need to come with plenty of support. Classes whose teachers generally overestimated in maths reported more pressure, as did classes with higher overall maths attainment. The authors think a classroom that puts results and proving ability front and centre may feed this pressure, though they did not measure it directly. Lower-attaining pupils in high-attaining classes may be most at risk. When you set ambitious goals, show the steps to reach them, build in support along the way, and talk about each pupil’s progress rather than comparing them with classmates.
- Check who you tend to overestimate. Teachers overestimated boys more than girls in reading, and pupils whose parents had more education more than other pupils. Whole classes with more pupils from minority ethnic backgrounds were also overestimated more. These differences came from some groups being overestimated, rather than others being underestimated. Teachers’ raw expectations of boys and girls were the same, but boys had lower test results, so their expectations sat further above where they were. The authors point out that accurately judged pupils may miss out on the extra challenge and attention the overestimated group receives. Look at who you pick for extension work or harder questions, and check whether a girl or a pupil from a less advantaged home with the same results is getting the same offers.
Why might teachers exercise caution before applying these findings in their classroom?
The study is correlational, so overestimation may not have caused the gains; teachers may have noticed qualities the tests missed. Pressure was measured once, with a single question, and the effects were small. The study covered one Dutch school year, in the high-stakes years before secondary school placement.
What is a single quote that summarises the key findings from the paper?
“Overall, our findings indicate that high teacher expectations are generally beneficial for students’ school engagement and academic achievement. At the same time, substantial overestimation may increase the risk of heightened performance pressure.”
